Communist Review - As global integration increases, understanding and empathy between nations have become essential, requiring countries to apply more flexible and effective tools to international relations to achieve their goals. The concept of soft power is becoming increasingly popular and is employed by many countries around the world, including Vietnam.

Soft power and the sources of soft power

In international relations, comprehensive national power is a relative concept⁽¹⁾ which is determined by comparison and interaction between nations. Following the end of the Cold War, the concept of comprehensive national power has developed more clearly. American professor Joseph Nye⁽²⁾ pioneered research on power and developed a conceptual framework for it. Although there is still much debate, this framework has gradually been adopted by foreign policy makers and enforcers in many countries around the world.

In Professor Nye's conceptual framework, power means the ability to get desired outcomes in relations between one country and another. Power includes "hard power," which is linked to economic and military might, to achieve one’s goals; "soft power," which is the ability to produce attraction and seduction so that other countries "voluntarily" change their behaviors and policies in favor of what one desires; and "smart power," which is the ability to combine both "hard power" and "soft power."⁽³⁾

The soft power of a country rests primarily on three resources: “Its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority)”⁽⁴⁾. Therefore, soft power can be strengthened and developed by promoting ideals, principles, culture, values, and diplomatic conduct in line with common standards ⁽⁵⁾.

Some Chinese scholars believe that the concept of soft power dates back to ancient China. Philosophers such as Sun Tzu, Wu Tzu, and Xunzi touched upon this concept when discussing the "way" and "harmony" in the "world." They posited Professor Joseph Nye's approach but argued that China's sources of soft power include Chinese cultural values; ideological values and model of political institution; strategic diplomatic thinking; and foreign policy⁽⁶⁾. Additionally, the socio-economic and scientific-technological achievements that China has attained since initiating reform and opening up have also been a significant magnet to the world.

Soft power and hard power

“The key to whether a certain power source becomes soft or hard is how a state (or any other actors) uses its power.”⁽⁷⁾  In terms of resources, hard power is considered by most scholars to include economic and military strength. From the perspective of purpose, there are two methods of using hard power. While the hard method employs economic and military might to achieve one’s objectives, the soft method uses economic strength to assist other countries; or uses strong measures to lead parties in conflict to a peaceful solution; or is used in the building and keeping of peace.

On the other hand, the sources of soft power, whether from the perspective of Professor Nye or that of Chinese scholars, are used only through the soft method and usually do not produce results as hard power. The attraction of culture, value systems, institutional models, and trust cannot be used to bribe, pressure, or impose on other nations. The philosophy of using soft power is "good wine needs no bush." However, soft power can also complement hard power and enhance its effectiveness if a nation possesses smart power. A country with soft power will be able to rally cooperation and support of the international community to strengthen its hard power. Such a country can also reduce the expenditure of its hard power resources while still achieving its objectives.

The use of hard power often leaves behind consequences. At a minimum, it can deplete a nation’s economic and military strength. At its worst, it can erode a nation's international role, reputation, and soft power, especially when the use of hard power is deemed illegal or unjust. In such cases, a nation's soft power can help mitigate these consequences. In military and economic conflicts, a nation with significant soft power can leverage partnerships to quickly restore its hard power. Additionally, it can gain the empathy of partners, thereby minimizing the damage to its soft power.

The use of hard power can produce immediate results, whereas soft power often requires long-term planning and can fail to meet expectations. In certain cases, a nation may need to use hard power. As long as power politics and violence persist in international relations, countries must continue to keep hard power in mind, as no amount of soft power can fully replace it. However, a nation cannot rely solely on hard power and must combine it with soft power, which is an essential factor in creating a sustainable foundation for a country's relationships with its partners. The appeal of a development model, culture, shared values, and transparent and consistent policies and behavior positively affects the trust-building process between nations. Trust is the basis for nations to cooperate and connect with one another.

The purpose of using power depends on the nature of the relationship between countries. Major countries, in their relations with smaller ones, tend to deploy hard power to bribe, trade, impose, or deprive, and develop soft power to attract, lead, and cause smaller countries to "voluntarily" follow them. Smaller countries, in their relations with larger ones, may use economic power to trade, military might to "warn" the larger countries, and may develop soft power to build trust. In their relations, medium and small countries will each use a "mixed" approach of different types of power to achieve their goals, depending on the current state of their relationships, the balance of comprehensive power, and their national objectives (both short-term and long-term).

Soft power and national interests

In foreign relations, every nation prioritizes the goal of maximizing national interests above all else. In March 1848, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston made a classic statement about national interests in the House of Commons: “We have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and perpetual, and those interests it is our duty to follow.”⁽⁸⁾ This demonstrates that the foreign policy of any country is ultimately a reflection of its concept of national interest and the methods to achieve it. However, if a nation pursues its own interests while disregarding the interests of other countries and international law, its soft power will be damaged. On the other hand, if a nation is able to reconcile its interests with those of other countries and its actions are based on international law, its soft power will increase.

The process of formulating and implementing foreign policy in most countries is directly influenced by leaders and policy advisors, and indirectly by interest groups, the media, and the public. Accordingly, a country's soft power can affect the policymaking and implementation process of its partners by targeting the perceptions of the leaders and policy advisors of partner countries, and the perceptions of interest groups, the media, and the public in partner countries, thereby indirectly influencing the leaders and policy advisors.

While hard power can be wielded to bargain, deter, impose (or counter these purposes), and directly influence the policies and behaviors of partner countries, soft power mainly exerts an indirect influence on the policies of partner countries through positive sentiments (towards the host country) and favorable impressions (about the host country) held by the leaders and policy advisors of those partner countries. For example, if the leaders and policy advisors of one country have a favorable impression and positive sentiment towards another country, they might adopt a "softer" approach in their calculations and handling of issues related to that country. However, it is important to distinguish between a country and its policies. Some countries possess significant soft power, but this does not always translate into support from other nations, especially when their actions contradict the UN Charter and international law. Professor Nye cited the international community's reaction to the US invasion of Vietnam as a prime example⁽⁹⁾.

Sources of Vietnam’s soft power

If soft power is defined as the ability to attract partners, a broad approach is needed to identify the sources of Vietnam's soft power that encompasses everything that can create and enhance this ability. The most important elements include:

First, Vietnam’s history of struggle for national construction and defense which has been admired by leaders, scholars, and students of history worldwide. By maintaining independence after nearly 1,000 years under Chinese domination, repelling invasion and assimilation attempts, and especially defeating the Mongol invasions three times and winning the resistance wars against the French colonialists and American imperialists in the Ho Chi Minh era, Vietnam has been counted foremost among the nations which cherish and resolutely safeguard independence and freedom. These victories not only inspired oppressed nations around the world to rise up for national liberation, but have also significantly influenced the calculations and forces of colonial and imperial powers, contributing to the decolonization process in Africa. Independence and freedom are universal values. The heroic history of generations of predecessors has created a vast reservoir of soft power for subsequent generations in Vietnam. Today, many countries remain ready to support Vietnam. They unconditionally vote in favor of Vietnam's participation in regional and international multilateral organizations, especially the United Nations.

Second, the attraction of Vietnamese culture, which includes tolerance, hospitality, and cultural diversity and uniqueness. The nation has endured significant suffering and loss throughout history, but the Vietnamese people do not harbor hatred. While the Vietnamese never forget the atrocities and tragic consequences inflicted by foreign invasions, they have set aside the past and look toward the future. Vietnam does not use history as a tool to implement foreign policy, thus developing all foreign invaders (in both recent and modern history) into partners. Vietnamese people’s hospitality is reflected in their openness and readiness to welcome others, and showing respect for guests. Most foreigners, who visit Vietnam and are able to overcome inevitable initial “cultural shocks," gain very deep and positive impressions on the country and its people. In an industrialized world, the various cultures of Vietnam’s 54 ethnic groups, with many preserved and developed values, hold great appeal to foreigners. Alongside popular culinary delights like “bun cha” (grilled pork served with noodle) and “banh mi” (Vietnamese sandwich), other Vietnamese cultural products attract many foreigners who come to admire, enjoy, and contribute to the preservation and development of these assets. The soft power of Vietnamese culture gradually influences and wins over foreign visitors.

Third, Vietnam's development goals and achievements, which have made a positive impression on the international community. Socialism that Vietnam is building is characterized by "a prosperous people, a strong country, democracy, equity, and civilization." This vision is widely endorsed by most countries and helps foreign scholars understand that Vietnam is aiming for the common goals of progressive humanity. Human-centered achievements in development have also contributed to the appeal of Vietnamese culture. Among the countries that have gained independence from colonialism and defeated foreign invaders since World War II, Vietnam is one of the few that has successfully maintained peace, stability, and development. After nearly 40 years of renewal, Vietnam has transformed from a country seeking international aid into a country which is self-sufficient in basic resources, and which has begun to contribute material resources to regional and international efforts. Vietnam's successes in poverty reduction, healthcare, education, and social equity are highly regarded by the international community. On June 30, 2023, the Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), after a field survey in Vietnam, said, "The United Nations and the ILO in particular regard Vietnam - a socialist country as a model of effort and development for other nations to learn from."⁽¹⁰⁾

Regarding human rights, democracy, and religious freedom, Vietnam has embraced most of the universal goals. The difference between Vietnam and some Western countries lies in the method and the roadmap to achieving these goals. To bridge this gap, Vietnam has shifted from a "struggle" approach to a "sharing and persuasion" oriented approach.  This approach, combined with notable achievements in ensuring human rights, has contributed to the enhanced  status and image of Vietnam and its people in the international community, including Western countries.

Fourth, Vietnam's foreign policy and its relationships with partners, which have generated considerable goodwill within the international community. Vietnam has gradually transformed its foreign policy of “taking sides” into one of independence, self-reliance, multilateralization, diversification, and international integration, as well as being ready to be a friend and reliable partner of all nations and an active and responsible member of the international community. The guiding principle of Vietnam's foreign policy is to ensure the highest national interest based on the fundamental principles of the UN Charter and international law, equality, cooperation, and mutual benefit. While this policy reflects Vietnam’s own perspective, it shares similarities with most small and medium-sized countries around the world, particularly in the practice of maintaining friendships with all nations but not allying any country.

In its foreign relations, Vietnam has garnered substantial goodwill from most countries. Vietnam advocates a balance between immediate and long-term interests, and between prioritized and non-prioritized areas. It tries to avoid taking actions which serve national interests but negatively affect the interests of other countries. Vietnam aims to conduct its relationships with other countries, particularly world powers, in a balanced manner.

Regarding regional and global affairs, Vietnam has evolved from merely supporting and contributing ideas to actively providing financial, material, and human resources. Recent activities, such as contributing to humanitarian aid efforts for the Ukrainian people, sending rescue teams to Turkey after the earthquake disaster, and increasing contributions to United Nations peacekeeping missions in South Sudan, the Abyei area, and the Central African Republic, have helped enhance Vietnam’s traditional relationships with other countries and created a new image of Vietnam as a responsible member of the global community.

For its partners, whether individuals, organizations, or nations, Vietnam has cultivated an increasingly positive image of a country and a people who  match their words with their actions. Vietnam consistently honors its international commitments, which is a key factor in attracting foreign investors and encouraging countries to join in free trade agreements (FTAs) with Vietnam. At regional and international multilateral forums, most of Vietnam's candidates are elected with clear majorities.

Promoting Vietnam’s soft power in the new period

In 1964, President Ho Chi Minh told diplomats, "Whatever you do, you must do it for national interest."⁽¹¹⁾. Currently, Vietnam's most important goals are to become a developing country with modern industry and upper-middle income by 2030, and a developed country with high income by 2045⁽¹²⁾. These goals are being pursued in a new regional and global context, where competition among world powers eclipses cooperation; power politics outweighs equal cooperation; divisions are interwoven with alignments; and globalization progresses alongside fragmentation and decoupling. Given this context, while continuing to increase its hard power, Vietnam should take into account several key elements for the development of its soft power until 2030, with a vision to 2045.

Soft power development goals: Vietnam aims to maintain empathy and sharing, to build and strengthen trust with major countries, to garner support from medium and small countries, and to attract people and investors globally. Vietnam also seeks to raise its international prestige so that by 2045, it can lead in certain areas where it has been successful and is highly regarded by the international community, particularly by medium and small countries.

Audiences of Vietnam’s soft power: The target groups include the elite, young leaders, the media, enterprises, and people (particularly the youth) of countries around the world. They will directly engage in the formulation and implementation of foreign policies related to Vietnam, become potential investors in Vietnam, and protect Vietnam against the sabotage and negative activities of hostile forces and reactionaries.

Soft power development orientation: By 2030, among the four sources of Vietnam's soft power, foreign policy and diplomatic conduct have the greatest and most direct impact on the perceptions of partners, followed by development paradigms and achievements, culture, and history. All these sources of soft power need to be developed and translated into Vietnam's diplomatic strength. To this end, it is crucial to focus on:

First, enhancing transparency and consistency in the process of formulating and implementing foreign policy towards partners at all levels: individual, organizational, and national. It is important to strictly adhere to international commitments and consolidate trust with partners. Vietnam should gradually increase its alignment with the progressive values of society, starting with upholding international law, and establish its position among the leading countries in promoting progressive social trends. It should promote the policy of being a "reliable partner and an active, responsible member of the international community" by proactively and actively contributing financial, material, and human resources to addressing common issues of  the regional and global community.

Second, continuing to design and promote the development paradigm in line with common criteria of mankind (similar to the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030), focusing on the happiness of the people and placing the people at the center. It is essential to accelerate the process of building and perfecting development institutions, learning from successful experiences worldwide, and improving international integration. Alongside socio-economic development, it is imperative to ensure human rights and to pay appropriate attention to environmental protection. If Vietnam is able to achieve its sustainable development goals, including the commitment to net-zero emissions by 2050, its attractiveness to the international community will multiply, policymakers from other countries will have a better impression of Vietnam, and more tourists and foreign investors will be drawn to the country.

Third, effectively implementing the Cultural Development Strategy until 2030. To develop Vietnam's cultural soft power, cultural resources need to be leveraged in all stages, from preservation and development to international promotion. To increase its appeal to the international community, culture must possess distinctiveness and strategic elements to make international friends appreciate and want to experience its uniqueness. Therefore, alongside the preservation and development of culture, it is important to make full use of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and Vietnam's increasingly extensive and comprehensive international integration to improve cultural promotion activities. There is a need to raise the awareness of the importance of preserving the nation's cultural beauty in every Vietnamese citizen.

Fourth, further promoting Vietnam's historical traditions to the world. This involves disseminating Vietnam’s history in a way that caters to different target audiences, starting with leaders and policy advisors, followed by youth, students, and the general public in other countries who are interested in Vietnam. Establishing a standard value system and developing the typically beautiful character of the Vietnamese people is important as Vietnam accelerates its comprehensive and extensive international integration. Every citizen should be an "ambassador" to promote the nation’s culture, history, sincerity, and hospitality in order to make international friends better understand and identify with Vietnam.

Fifth, integrating the development and promotion of Vietnam's soft power into human development strategies and plans, starting with cadres, civil servants, and public employees, particularly those engaged in foreign affairs and international integration, followed by individuals, organizations, and communities interacting and engaged with foreigners and foreign elements.

It is important to mobilize all resources, stakeholders, and the collective efforts of the entire community to promote the brand and image of Vietnam. There is a need to combine the forces of ministries, agencies, sectors, businesses, people, Vietnamese consulates, and Vietnamese students around the world to create a synergy, bringing Vietnam closer to the world and vice versa. The participation of the overseas Vietnamese community will “contribute to preserving and promoting the Vietnamese language, cultural identity, and national traditions, as well as attracting high-quality resources from abroad to serve national sustainable development.”⁽¹³⁾

In a nutshell, soft power is an essential component of comprehensive national power. In the two resistance wars against foreign invaders for national independence and reunification, Vietnam effectively utilized soft power, especially the righteousness of its struggle, not only for the sake of national interests but also for the universal values of peace, national independence, and social progress. After the wars, especially since the beginning of the renewal process, Vietnam has continued to consolidate and develop its soft power by boosting cultural and socio-economic development, international integration, and pursuing a foreign policy consistent with the basic principles of international law and with development trends of the international community. After nearly 40 years of renewal, it is now time for Vietnam to further harness its soft power. Compared to regional neighbors, Vietnam possesses a considerable amount of soft power. Greater efforts by the entire population are needed to maximize the impact of the country’s soft power, especially on influencing major partners.

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* This article draws from research project KX.04.08/21-25

(1) Comprehensive national power, if not placed within the context of comparison and interaction, holds little significance in the formulation and implementation of foreign policy.
(2) Joseph Nye, born in 1937, is an American political professor, former Dean of the Harvard's Kennedy School of Government, and former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs.
(3) Joseph Nye: Soft power: The mean to success in world politics, United States, Public Affairs, 2004, p. 2
(4), (5) Ibid., pp. 10, 33 - 36
(6) Dinh Thi Hien Luong: China’s soft power in strategic competition with the US in Indo-Pacific: Impact and implication on Vietnam, National Political Publishing House, 2022, pp. 75 - 87
(7) Li Mingjian: “Domestic sources of China’s soft power approach”, China Security, 2009
(8) Lord Palmerston: “We have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and perpetual, and those interests it is our duty to follow”, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191826719.001.0001/q-oro-ed4-00008130;jsessionid=EC13370994170DCD1E10A3BB4F0862C6
(9) Joseph Nye: Soft power: The mean to success in world politics United States, Public Affairs, 2004, p. 35
(10) Ha Van: “ILO Director-General: Vietnam is a model for other nations to learn from”, Vietnam Government Portal, June 30, 2023, https://baochinhphu.vn/tong-giam-doc-to-chuc-lao-dong-quoc-te-viet-nam-la-mot-mo-hinh-de-cac-nuoc-tham-khao-hoc-tap-102230630170758478.htm
(11) Nguyen Dy Nien: Ho Chi Minh’s thought on diplomacy, National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 2002, p. 112
(12) Documents of the 13th National Party Congress, National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 2021, Vol. I, p. 36
(13) Directive 25/CT-TTg of the Prime Minister, dated September 10, 2021, on  “Accelerating the implementation of the cultural strategy for Vietnam’s foreign relations.”

This article was published in the Communist Review No. 1025 (November 2023)